ISLAMIC ESOTERISM: BOOKS
W. B. Seabrook, Aventures en Arabie (Gallimard, Paris). Like the author's previous books that have been translated [into French] ([1]) this one stands out favorably from the usual 'travelogues', no doubt because here we are dealing with someone unencumbered with preconceived ideas, and who, above all, is not convinced that Westerners are superior to all other peoples. There is the occasional naïvité and expression of astonishment in the face of quite simple and elementary things, but this, after all, seems to us rather a guarantee of sincerity. In fact the title is a bit misleading, as the author has not actually traveled to Arabia properly speaking, but only to the regions situated immediately to the north; and in order to have done with our criticisms, let us add that the Arabic words are sometimes strangely corrupted, as if by someone who had tried to transcribe approximately the sounds that he hears but without concern for spelling, and also that some expressions are translated in a rather fanciful way. Finally, we note yet again the curious fact that in Western books intended for the 'general public', the shahādah is never reproduced accurately. Is this purely accidental, or is one not rather tempted to think that there is something opposed to its being pronounced by the mass of hostile, or simply indifferent, readers?
The first and longest part of the book is concerned with life among the Bedouins, and is almost entirely descriptive, which is certainly not to say that it is without interest; but the parts that follow offer something more. In particular, a section that treats of the Dervishes contains remarks by a certain Shaykh Mawlawi, of which the sense is no doubt faithfully reproduced. Thus, in order to dispel the incomprehension that the author displays concerning certain țuruq [spiritual paths], the Shaykh explains to him that 'there is not just one narrow
and direct way to God but an infinite number of paths'; it is a pity that there was no opportunity to make him understand as well that Sufism has nothing in common with pantheism or with heterodoxy... On the other hand, it is certainly heterodox sects, and quite enigmatic ones, that are treated in two other parts: the Druse and the Yezedis; and on these he offers some interesting information, though without claiming to explain everything. Regarding the Druse, one point that remains particularly obscure is the rite in which they are said to pay homage to a 'golden calf' or to a 'calf's head'; this is something that could perhaps suggest numerous connections, only a few of which the author seems to have anticipated; but he has at least understood that symbolism is not idolatry... With regard to the Yezedis, this book gives a rather different idea of them than does the discussion which we mentioned recently in another review. [2] 'Mazdaism' is no longer associated with them, and this is accurate enough as far as it goes; but the 'worship of the devil' could lead to discussions somewhat more difficult to resolve, and the true nature of the Malak Tāwūs remains a mystery. What is perhaps most worthy of interest, although unknown to the author, who, in spite of what he has seen cannot bring himself to believe, is what concerns the 'seven towers of the devil', which are centers from which satanic influences are projected throughout the world. That one of these towers may be situated among the Yezedis does not in any case prove that they are themselves 'satanists', but only that, like many heterodox sects, they can be used to facilitate the action of forces of which they are unaware. In this regard it is significant that the regular Yezedi priests refrain from taking part in any rites in this tower, whereas all manner of wandering magicians often spend some days there. What do the latter actually represent? In any event it is not necessary that the tower be inhabited permanently if it is nothing more than the tangible and 'localized' support of one of the centers of the 'counter-initiation', presided over by the awliya ash-Shaytān; and the latter, in establishing these seven centers, claim to oppose the influence of the seven Aqtäb or terrestrial 'Poles' subordinated to the supreme 'Pole', although this opposition can be no more than illusory since the spiritual domain is necessarily closed to the 'counter-initiation'.
Études Traditionnelles, 1935, pp 42-43.
Khan Sahib Khaja Khan [Tr.]. The Secret of Ana'l Haqq [Lahore: Sh. Muhammad Ashraf, 1965]. This book is a translation of a Persian work entitled Irshādat al-Arifin, by Shaykh Muhammad Ibrahim Gazur-i-Ilahi of Shakarkote, but rearranged into chapters according to subject in order to make it more easily understood. In explaining his intentions, the author unfortunately speaks of a 'propagandizing of the esoteric teachings of Islam', as if esoterism could lend itself to propaganda of any kind. If such was really his aim, it cannot be said that he has succeeded, for readers who have no previous knowledge of tasawwuf will doubtless have much difficulty in uncovering the true meaning in an English expression [Sufi] which all too often is used inaccurately. This defect, plus his transcription of Arabic citations in a way that strangely distorts them, is most regrettable, because, for those who already know what is involved, this book contains things of the greatest interest. The central point of these teachings is the doctrine of the 'Supreme Identity', as the title of the work indicates. The only drawback to this title is that it seems to link the doctrine to one particular expression, that of al-Hallāj, whereas nothing of the sort appears in the text itself. This doctrine illuminates and coordinates as it were all the considerations relating to the different subjects dealt with, such as the degrees of Existence, the divine attributes, al-fanā' and al-baqā', the methods and the stages of initiatic development, and many other matters. This work can be recommended, not to those toward whom any 'propaganda' could be addressed-which, in any case, would completely miss the point-but on the contrary to those who already possess sufficient knowledge to derive a real benefit from it.
Études Traditionnelles, 1937, p266.
Edward Jabra Jurji. Illumination in Islamic Mysticism: a translation, with an introduction and notes, based upon a critical edition of Abu-al-Mawahib al-Shādhili's treatise, entitled Qawānīn Hikam alIshrāq [Lahore: Sind Sagar Academy, 1974]. The expression 'Islamic mysticism' made fashionable by [Richard] Nicholson and other orientalists, is most unfortunately inaccurate, as we have already explained on various occasions, for what is really at issue is tasawwuf, which is something of the essentially initiatic order, not the mystical. Moreover, the author of this book seems to follow Western 'authorities' all
too readily, which at times leads him to say some rather odd things, for example that 'it is now established' that Sufism has such and such a character, as if one were studying some ancient doctrine that has long since disappeared; but Sufism exists in the present and consequently can still be known at first hand, so that there is nothing to 'establish' on its account. Similarly, it is at once naïve and outrageous to say that 'some members of the Shādhilite fraternity have recently been observed in Syria'; we should have thought it well-known that this țarīqah, in one or another of its numerous branches, was more or less widespread in all the Islamic countries, and all the more so since it has certainly never thought of concealing itself; but this untoward 'observation' might legitimately lead one to wonder what singular sort of espionage certain orientalists may be engaged in! There are some 'nuances' here which will probably escape American or European readers, but we should have thought that a Syrian, even if Christian, is all the same ibn al-Arab, and should have had a little more Eastern 'sensibility'... To come to other more important points, it is regrettable that the author accepts the theory of 'borrowings' and of 'syncretism'. If it is 'difficult to determine the beginning of Sufism in Islam,' it is because traditionally it has not and cannot have any other beginning than that of Islam itself. It is in such matters that it is advisable to be wary of the abuses of the modern 'historical method'.
On the other hand, the doctrine of ishrāqiyah, in the proper sense of the word, represents only a rather special point of view, that of a school linked principally to Abul-Futūh as-Suhrawardi (not to be confused with the founder of the tarīqah that bears the same name), a school which cannot be regarded as entirely orthodox, and to which some even deny any real link with tasawwuf, even through deviation, considering it rather as simply 'philosophical'. It is rather astonishing that some people claim that it goes back to Muhyi 'd-Dīn ibn al-'Arabī himself, and it is no less astonishing that they should wish to have the Shādhilite țarīqah derive from it, however indirectly. When one comes across the word ishrāq, as in the treatise translated here, one cannot conclude from this that the ishrāqiyah doctrine is involved, any more than, wherever its Western equivalent, 'illumination', is found, one is entitled to speak of 'illuminism'. This should make it all the more clear that an idea like that of tawhīd was not 'derived' from this particular doctrine, for it is an idea that is absolutely essential to Islam in general, even in its exoteric aspect (there is a branch of
studies designated as 'ilm at-tawhīd among the ulūm az-zāher, that is to say the sciences which are publicly taught in Islamic universities). In short, the entire introduction to the book is based on a misunderstanding caused by the use of the word ishrāq; but the content of the treatise itself in no way justifies such an interpretation, for in reality there is nothing to be found here but perfectly orthodox tasawwuf. Fortunately, the quality of the translated text itself, which is the most important part of the book, far exceeds that of the observations preceding it, and although the absence of the original makes it difficult to fully verify its accuracy, one can nonetheless get an adequate sense of it from the inclusion of a large number of Arabic terms which are generally very well rendered, although some call for certain reservations, however. Thus mukāshafah is not properly 'revelation' but rather 'intuition'; more precisely, it is a perception of the subtle order (mulātafah, here translated rather extraordinarily as amiability), inferior to pure contemplation (mushāhadah), at least when the word is taken in its strict sense. We cannot understand the translation of muthūl, which essentially implies the idea of 'similitude', as attendance, the more so as ālam al muthūl is normally the 'world of archetypes'; baqā is 'permanence' rather than 'subsistence'; dīn cannot be rendered as 'faith', which in Arabic is imān; kanz al-asrār ar-rabbāniyah is not 'the secrets of the divine treasure' (which would be asrār alkanz al-ilāhī), but 'the treasure of the dominical secrets', (in the 'technical' terminology there is an important difference between ilāhī and rabbānī). One could doubtless find more inaccuracies of this kind, but on the whole they are trifling, and since the treatise is of unquestionable interest, the book, excepting its introduction, can certainly be recommended to all who study Islamic esoterism.
Études Traditionnelles, 1940, pp 166-168.
Émile Dermenghem. Contes Kabyles (Algeria: Charlot, 1945). What we find particularly interesting in this collection of 'popular tales' from North Africa are the introduction and accompanying notes in which some general considerations on the nature of 'universal folklore' are set forth. The author quite rightly points out that 'the true interest of popular literature does not lie in questions of external relationship, influence, or dependence,' but above all in what they bear witness to 'in favor of the unity of the traditions.' He brings out the
insufficiency of the 'rationalist and evolutionist' view to which most folklorists and ethnologists, with their theories on 'seasonal rites' and other things of the kind, subscribe; and his comments on the specifically symbolic meaning of the tales and the truly 'transcendent' character of their contents recall various observations we ourselves and some of our collaborators have set forth in these pages. All the same, it is to be regretted that in spite of this he felt it necessary to devote so much space to ideas that are hardly compatible with this viewpoint; one must choose between so-called 'seasonal rites' and initiatic rites, or between the so-called 'tribal initiation' of the ethnologists and true initiation. Even if it is true and normal that esoterism has its reflection and its correspondence in the exoteric side of tradition, one must still avoid putting the principle and its secondary applications on the same plane, and in the present instance one must also consider these applications completely apart from the anti-traditional ideas of our contemporaries regarding 'primitive societies'; on the other hand, what can one say of the psychoanalytic interpretation, which ultimately denies the 'superconscious' by purely and simply conflating it with the 'subconscious'? Let us say again that initiation, understood in its true sense, has not and could not have anything 'mystical' about it; it is particularly regrettable to see this equivocation perpetuated in spite of all the explanations we have given on this subject...
Above all, the accompanying notes and commentaries exhibit the many similarities between the tales of the Kabyles and those of other and very diverse countries, and it is hardly necessary to say that these parallels are of particular interest as 'illustrations' of the universality of folklore. A final note deals with the opening and closing formulas of these tales, which obviously correspond in a general way to those marking the beginning and ending of a rite, and which, as we have explained elsewhere, are related to the 'coagulation' and 'solution' of the Hermeticists. As for the tales themselves, they seem to have been rendered as faithfully as a translation allows, and make for very pleasant reading.
Émile Dermenghem, Le Mythe de Psyché dans le folklore nord-africain (Algeria: Société Historique Algérienne, [n.d.]). This is yet another folkloric study in which the principal features of the wellknown myth of Psyche are found, joined or scattered in various ways,
in numerous tales from North Africa and many other countries. As the author says, 'not a single one of these features fails to suggest an initiatic and ritual meaning, nor is there one that cannot be traced to the body of universal folklore.' There are also variants, of which the most remarkable is 'the inversion by which the mystical is given a feminine form.' Tales of this type 'seem to insist on the active side, the conquering side, as if they represented the aspect of human effort rather that the passive and theocentric aspect,' these two aspects obviously complementing each other. Now, it is not impossible that Apuleius, who certainly did not invent the myth, may have been able to draw his inspiration from a 'popular African oral tradition' for certain details of the version that he gives in his The Golden Ass; it must not be forgotten, however, that representations of this myth can already be found on Greek monuments dating from several centuries earlier. But this question of 'sources' is not really very important, for the very diffusion of the myth shows that one must go much further back to find the origin, if indeed one can speak of an origin in such circumstances; besides, folklore as such can never be the starting-point of anything whatsoever, for it is, on the contrary, made up entirely of 'survivals', such in fact even being its raison d'être. On the other hand, the fact that certain features of these tales correspond to customs, interdictions, and conditions which have actually existed in connection with marriage in one or another country proves absolutely nothing against the existence of a higher meaning, a meaning from which, we would even say, these customs themselves may have been derived-always for the reason that exoterism has its principle in esoterism, so that the higher and initiatic meaning, far from being 'added on' later, is, on the contrary, that which is in reality primordial. Dermenghem's study closes with an examination of the relationship between the myth of Psyche and similar tales in the ancient mysteries, which is particularly worthy of interest, as is the evidence of certain connections with taşawwuf. In this regard we will only add that similarities such as are found between the terminology of taşawwuf and Platonic vocabulary should not be taken as 'borrowings', for taşawwuf is properly and essentially Islamic, and resemblances of this kind do nothing more than confirm as clearly as possible the 'unanimity' of the universal tradition under all its forms.
Études Traditionnelles, 1947, pp90-91.
Henry Corbin. Suhrawardi d'Alep, fondateur de la doctrine illuminative (ishrāqi) (Paris: G.-P. Maisonneuve, 1939). Suhrawardi of Aleppo, who is the subject of this brochure, is often called ash-Shaykh almaqtül [the Shaykh who was killed], to distinguish him from other figures named Suhrawardi, although one does not exactly know if he was in fact killed or if he let himself starve to death in prison. The strictly historical part is conscientiously done and gives good survey of his life and works, but we have many reservations regarding certain of the author's interpretations, and regarding some of his assertions concerning supposed 'sources' of the most hypothetical sort; notably, here again we find the singular idea, which we have mentioned in a recent article, that the origin of all angelology lies in Mazdaism. In addition, the author did not known how to make the proper distinction between the doctrine of ishrāqiyah, which is not connected to any regular silsilah, and the true taşawwuf; it is really rather rash to say that 'Suhrawardi is in the lineage of al-Hallāj' on the basis of certain outward resemblances; and one certainly cannot take one of his admirers literally when he called him 'the master of the moment', for such expressions are often used only hyperbolically. No doubt Suhrawardi must have been influenced to a certain degree by taşawwuf, but basically he seems to have been inspired by Neoplatonic ideas, which he clothed in an Islamic form, and this is why his doctrine is generally regarded as truly relevant only to philosophy; but have the orientalists ever been able to understand the profound difference separating taşawwuf from all philosophy? Finally, although this is really only an matter of secondary importance, we wonder why on occasion Corbin seems to have felt obliged to imitate the complicated and somewhat obscure style of Massignon to such a degree that one could confuse the two.
Études Traditionnelles, 1947, p92.
Marie-Louis Dubouloz-Laffin. Le Bou-Mergoud, Folklore tunisien (Paris: G.-P. Maisonneuve, 1944). As is indicated by the subtitle, this hefty volume, illustrated with drawings and photographs, deals especially with the 'popular beliefs and customs of Sfax and its region.' The author displays a far more 'sympathetic' spirit than is usually found in such 'inquiries'-which, it must be admitted, too often give out a false air of 'espionage'-and this is no mean
accomplishment. Moreover, this is why 'informants' are so difficult to find, and we understand well the repugnance that most people feel in replying to indiscreet questions, all the more so as they naturally cannot guess the reasons for such curiosity regarding things which for them are quite ordinary. Dubouloz-Laffin, as much in her capacity as teacher as through her more comprehensive mentality, was certainly in a better position than many to obtain satisfying results, and one can say that in general she has succeeded very well in the task she set herself. However, this is not to say that everything in this book is free from error, which is no doubt inevitable to a certain extent. In our opinion, one of the principal errors lies in her seeming to present many things that in reality are common either to all of North Africa, or even to the whole of the Islamic world, as purely regional. In addition, certain chapters dealing with the Muslim and Jewish elements of the population jumble the two together in a somewhat confusing way; it would have been useful not only to separate them clearly, but also, as concerns the Tunisian Jews, to distinguish between what belongs properly to them and what they have borrowed from their Muslim milieu. One other thing which, though assuredly only a secondary detail, nonetheless makes the reading of the book somewhat difficult, is that the Arabic words are rendered in a truly extraordinary orthography which obviously represents a local pronunciation, heard and written down very approximately. Even if one judged it appropriate to preserve these bizarre forms (although we do not see the interest this could hold), it would at least have been better to indicate on the side the correct forms as well, for as it stands some words are nearly unrecognizable. We should also like to add some remarks related more directly to the idea of folklore in general. It has become customary to incorporate very disparate things into this notion, and according to the case this may be justified, to some extent; but what seems to us quite inexplicable is that events that really occurred in known circumstances, and which can in no way be considered 'beliefs' or 'customs' are included as well. We find some instances of this kind here. For example, we do not see on what grounds a recent and duly recorded case of 'possession' or of a 'haunted house' can be associated in any way with folklore. Another peculiarity is the astonishment that Europeans always display when confronted with things which, in any context other than their own, are quite normal and everyday, so much so that they are no longer heeded. One has the impression that if they
have not had the opportunity to observe such things for themselves, they have great difficulty in believing what is told them. Traces of this frame of mind appear here and there in this book also, although it is less emphasized here than in other works of the kind. As for the contents of the book, the largest section deals first of all with the jnoun (jinn) and their various interventions in the life of humans, then with subjects more or less connected to it, magic and sorcery, to which medicine is added. The space accorded to things of this order is perhaps a bit excessive, and it is to be regretted that there is almost nothing concerning 'popular tales', which, however, are not lacking in the region studied or anywhere else, for it seems to us that this, after all, is what constitutes the very foundation of true folklore understood in its strictest sense. The final part, which is devoted to 'marabouts', is rather summary, and is certainly the least satisfying, even from the simply 'documentary' point of view. It is true that for more than one reason this subject was probably the most difficult to treat; but at least we do not find the irksome prejudice so widespread among Westerners, which insists that this is something foreign to Islam, and which even strives to discover in it vestiges of who knows what long-vanished cults, something not so difficult to do, given a dash of 'erudite' imagination.
Études Traditionnelles, 1949, pp. 45-46.